Fundamentals of organizational behavior Research Paper

Fundamentals of organizational behavior - Research Paper Example The main objective of OB was to lay emphasis on the different elements of this subject to understand the varied facets of the employee behavior. Therefore, the origin of OB is derived from the above mentioned subjects. In France, the emergence of OB was with the evolving of other subjects and was quite different from OB taught in the east, UK and USA. OB laid emphasis on the varied aspects like organizational communication, development, outcome and climate (Desreumaux 352-444). The communication system in France was developed since a long time and the dissemination of information was structured in a unique way. Thus, OB in France focused especially on the organizational communication, which is considered as backbone for the smooth integration of activities and systems within the organization (Desreumaux 444-577). Organizational Culture, Social Systems, Role & Status Organizational structure is largely dependent on the organizational culture, which helps in the development of a positi ve organizational climate (Jackson, â€Å"Cross-Cultural Management and NGO Capacity Building†) In France, the different kinds of organization usually have formal or informal structures, which lead to creation of different kinds of organizational culture, climate and environment (Brennan and Vecchi 149-164). The development of social culture within the organization is essential for the perfect balance between the organizational environment and outcome. In France, mostly the employee attitudes, beliefs and opinions form the basis of development of employee role, which contributes significantly to the individual employee outcome. The role of an employee plays a significant role in the formulation of strategy, which can help in tackling organizational problems and removal of functional barriers. The role of the employees or designation is very important in shaping the organizational culture. It also helps in the contribution to the integration of the varied systems and process o f the organization (Davidson and Omar 1352-1706). Motivation, Maslow’s Hierarchy Model & Herzberg Two Factor Needs Motivation inspires the employees, who indirectly help in increasing the employee outcome. Motivation also helps in the systematic grouping of the organization, which leads to proper teamwork and coordination of activities among varied departmental units. The French give due importance to the systematic grouping, which lead to proper delegation of tasks and activities. This in turn promotes the development of positive organizational climate for the betterment of the entire system. As mentioned before, the French organization give due importance to the communication channel within the organization, which relies heavily on the certain factors like motivation, leadership etc. Similarly, the Maslow Needs of Hierarchy is critically important in French organizations, which serves purposeful as guidance for the increase in the organizational outcome and also to maintain a perfect balance within the organ

Tourism and the media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Tourism and the media - Essay Example Tourism works unlike other industries in the fact that the industry depends a lot on the media for the success of the industry as a whole. The media is one of biggest drivers of tourism because the media serves the role of creating awareness about different places that are attractive for tourist to visit. The media influences tourism in a lot of ways. The role of media on tourism is a two-edge sword because the media can affect tourism in both a positive and negative way. One of the largest industries the media controls is the movie industry. A lot of movies showcase tourism spots indirectly in the plots of movies. Take for example the movie The Beach. This movie was filmed at one of the most beautiful beaches in the world. The movie was filmed on Thailand’s Maya Beach (Thailandlogue, 2011). After the movie was released the Maya Beach region received a huge influx of tourists due to the free promotion Maya Beach received. Movies are just one of many ways the media can influenc e tourism. There are television channels that are solely dedicated to promoting tourism worldwide. A channel that has done a great job promoting tourism is the Travel Channel. The purpose of the Travel Channel is to connect people to the power and joy of human journey that inspires, surprises, and entertain humans across the world (Travelchannel, 2011). The written press is another media channel that has lot of power and its actions influence tourism. Most national newspapers have a section dedicated to travel. The travel section of a newspaper showcases different tourism spots across the world. When people read and see pictures about different parts of the world they get motivated to save money in order to visit these places. There is valuable information in newspapers that can help tourism once they reach their destination. Information such as the current currency exchange rate and weather information can be obtained by reading a local newspaper. A lot of countries advertise thems elves through magazines. The efforts of the media play a vital role in the promotion of tourism. One of the most important aspects about tourism is that it promotes economic development. There are countries in the world such as many of the Caribbean inlands that are extremely dependent on tourism dollars to support their national economies. â€Å"Tourism is highly dependent on media reporting because the vast majority of travel decisions are made by people who have never seen the destination first hand themselves† (Un, 2007). The exposure the media can provide to a region can help generate tourism. One of the ways the media can help tourism as a whole is by teaching people about other cultures. Television programs can help people get accustomed to the idea of visiting a new location. For example the television series â€Å"Outsourced† produced by NBC showcases a cast of actors of Indian descent (Sidereel, 2011). Through the program people can learn about the culture of India which can help raise a person’s interest in visiting such a location. Another type of program that directly influences the tourism prospects of a country are documentaries. A documentary can be defined as media that presents a non-fictional story that incorporates music, pictures, video clips, emotion, camera angles, and lighting to enhance a story (Blogspot, 2007). When documentaries are used to showcase a country potential tourists get a chance to get an in-depth view a country. Documentaries

Educational Technology Essay Example for Free

Educational Technology Essay Educational technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources. The term educational technology is often associated with, and encompasses, instructional theory and learning theory. While instructional technology is the theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning, according to the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) Definitions and Terminology Committee,educational technology includes other systems used in the process of developing human capability. Educational technology includes, but is not limited to, software, hardware, as well as Internet applications, such as wikis and blogs, and activities. But there is still debate on what these terms mean.[3] Technology of education is most simply and comfortably defined as an array of tools that might prove helpful in advancing student learning and may be measured in how and why individuals behave. Educational Technology relies on a broad definition of the word technology. Technology can refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines or hardware, but it can also encompass broader themes, including systems, methods of organization, and techniques. Some modern tools include but are not limited to overhead projectors, laptop computers, and calculators. Newer tools such as smartphones and games (both online and offline) are beginning to draw serious attention for their learning potential. Media psychology is the field of study that applies theories in human behavior to educational technology. Consider the Handbook of Human Performance Technology. The word technology for the sister fields of Educational and Human Performance Technology means applied science. In other words, any valid and reliable process or procedure that is derived from basic research using the scientific method is considered a technology. Educational or Human Performance Technology may be based purely on algorithmic or heuristic processes, but neither necessarily implies physical technology. The word technology comes from the Greek techne which means craft or art. Another word, technique, with the same origin, also may be used when considering the field Educational Technology. So Educational Technology may be extended to include the techniques of the educator. A classic example of an Educational Psychology text is Blooms 1956 book, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.Blooms Taxonomy is helpful when designing learning activities to keep in mind what is expected of—and what are the learning goals for—learners. However, Blooms work does not explicitly deal with educational technology per se and is more concerned with pedagogical strategies. According to some, an Educational Technologist is someone who transforms basic educational and psychological research into an evidence-based applied science (or a technology) of learning or instruction. Educational Technologists typically have a graduate degree (Masters, Doctorate, Ph.D., or D.Phil.) in a field related to educational psychology, educational media, experimental psychology, cognitive psychology or, more purely, in the fields of Educational, Instructional or Human Performance Technology orInstructional Systems Design. But few of those listed below as theorists would ever use the term educational technologist as a term to describe themselves, preferring terms such as educator.The transformation of educational technology from a cottage industry to a profession is discussed by Shurville, Browne, and Whitaker. Definition of terms Evaluation is a systematic determination of a subjects merit, worth and significance, using criteria governed by a set of standards. It can assist an organization to assess any aim, realizable concept or proposal, or any alternative, to help in decision-making; or to ascertain the degree of achievement or value in regard to the aim and objectives and results of any such action that has been completed. Technology is the making, modification, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems, methods of organization, in order to solve a problem, improve a preexisting solution to a problem, achieve a goal, handle an applied input/output relation or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, modifications, arrangements and procedures. Technologies significantly affect human as well as other animal species ability to control and adapt to their natural environments. Educational technology is the use of technology to improve teaching and learning. the treatment of the process by which people learn, as a systematic process based on objectives, with strategies and systems to achieve them; a set of expensive tools sold to schools purporting to improve learning but not actually proven to do so information and communication technology (ICT), is often used as an extended synonym for information technology (IT), but is a more specific term that stresses the role of unified communications[1] and the integration oftelecommunications (telephone lines and wireless signals), computers as well as necessaryenterprise software, middleware, storage, and audio-visual systems, which enable users to access, store, transmit, and manipulate information. Classifications of Educational Technology When we hear the word technology today, we would immediately think of the mediated instructional materials particularly those, which are computer-based. But technology also includes the indigenous materials which have been used in the past and which have been proven as reliable. They have proven their worth especially to the teachers in the early days. According to the Equilibrium Theory of Education, the schools which are supposed to transmit accumulated knowledge and skills to students, that students are given balance of the old and new learning so that they will not lose track of the finest pedagogical culture which have been developed and accumulated all through the years. The classification of Educational Technology is divided into two which is the following: * Material Technology Material Technology is divided by two which is the lo-tech paper technology and the hi-tech mediated technology Lo-tech paper technology * It is also called traditional instructional materials; these are indigenous materials usually real objects or those that are made of paper and cardboards. They are still here to stay because not all schools are equipped with technology tools and not all teachers are ready to embrace modern technology. Hi-tech mediated technology * Often called as the mediated technology, it includes those, which are presented using media equipment or hardware. The most persuasive modern technology for teaching and learning in these contemporary times is the computer and its various applications. In fact all educational efforts are being geared toward its used. Its effectiveness in teaching and learning has been widely recognized. * Non-Material Technology This includes theories, laws, principles, methods and strategies of teaching. They evolved results of researches and studies in order to facilitate teaching and learning. Applications of Educational Technology A proper application of educational technology can result to improved sensation and perception that will lead to quality learning. Educational technology transcends geographical barriers, expose students to experiences beyond classroom, disseminate instruction across large areas and make education more accessible to more people. If Educational Technology is properly selected and used the students can do the following: * Arouse and sustain the interest and attention of the students. * Concretize concepts and ideas to promote meaningful learning. * Make learning more permanent by providing rich experiences. * Provide self-activities for independent learning. * Increase one’s vocabulary by eliminating verbalism * Promote continuity of thought * Increase the quality of learning while decreasing the time spent * Check student’s preparedness * Make learning more interactive * Choosing and applying educational technology . Evaluation in Educational Technology As education systems, in particular Technology Education, adapt to new expectations for secondary students entering an uncertain workforce, the time is appropriate to investigate the need for school facilities to meet these present demands and those that continue to change curricula. This study has been conducted in order to determine the facility requirements for the delivery of the evolving technology/manual arts curriculum in Queensland. A set of validated design criteria for evaluating technology education and vocational education settings was developed and trialed to assist the designer of such facilities to meet the needs of this area on schools designed in different eras from the 1960s to the present. A review of the published literature would indicate that little has been written on this aspect of facilities design. While related studies have been conducted in North America, they were not confined to the designing of the facilities and only had specific relevance in that coun try. An expert group consisting of prominent Queensland educators provided the impetus for developing the criteria which had been generated through a systematic search of the literature. The methodology utilised to involve the expert group was the Nominal Group Technique. After the criteria had been developed, they were validated by questionnaire through a 30% random sample of practicing heads of department across Queensland in both state and independent systems. A trial evaluation using current facilities was subsequently conducted to determine the effectiveness of the criteria in terms of teacher acceptability as well as establishing a pattern of needs for modification. Practitioners who use the facility for teaching technology education and/or vocational education could use the set of criteria to evaluate their facility in a similar manner to that of evaluating their students. Such evaluations could then become the basis for ffiture school planning and budgetary allocations as well as asset management of existing facilities. The study proved to be valuable as the validated criteria have the potential of being used as a tool by teachers to evaluate their facilities. At the systems level of operation, the criteria will provide assistance for designers, architects and teachers to prepare informal educational briefs. Such briefs would provide a consistent approach to the some times difficult task of clearly defining the function of a facility. The modem facility must meet the needs of current curriculum and be sufficiently flexible and adaptable to provide the educational requirements well into the twenty-first century. These developed criteria will gr eatly assist in this process. Overview It is a great honor for me to join in the celebration of the 100th birthday of National Taipei Teachers College. In the United States, this year is also the 100th anniversary of a famous march, the Stars and Stripes Forever, composed by the revered bandmaster, John Phillips Sousa in 1896. I learned this when I attended a band concert this fall, celebrating the 100th anniversary of the Department of Bands at Indiana University. During the concert I was thinking about what I might say today, and I realized that National Taipei Teachers College, the IU Department of Bands, and the Stars and Stripes Forever are all 100 years old this year. I plan to talk today on the topic: evaluation of use of information technology in education. First, I will discuss the use of information technology as a lever for change in educational systems and practice. Second, I will talk about the development of criteria for evaluating information technology systems in K-12 education. During 1993-95, I played a central role on a team of faculty and graduate students at Indiana University who helped develop these criteria for the National Study of School Evaluation. I will provide a brief overview of the criteria for use of information technology in K-12 education in the United States. Finally, I will share my personal philosophy on use of technology in education. Stability and Change in Education The publication of A Nation at Risk in 1983 helped to renew U.S. efforts to further improve public schooling. We have given names to these reform efforts such as: site-based management, school restructuring and educational systems design (cf. Banathy, 1991; Reigeluth, 1992; Frick, 1993). One difficulty in changing a system is that it tends to remain the same. Systems try to attain and maintain some level of stability (cf. Maccia Maccia, 1975; 1966). The big challenge is: How can we overcome this stability in our education systems in order to make positive changes, without harming what is already good and should not be changed? One educator in Indiana has joked that the problem of getting our schools to change is like trying to change the direction of a big elephant going 100 miles per hour. Indicators of Quality Information Technology Systems in Education The National Study of School Evaluation recently published Technology: Indicators of Quality Information Technology Systems in K-12 Schools (NSSE, 1996). This publication provides: * a vision for student learning in technology through suggestions of performance indicators at the elementary, middle and high school levels, * indicators for judging how a schools instructional system supports learning achievement in technology, and * indicators for evaluating how a schools organizational system supports its vision. History of Educational Technology during ancient times There is no written evidence which can tell us exactly who has coined the phrase educational technology. Different educationists, scientists and philosophers at different time intervals have put forwarded different definitions of Educational Technology. Educational technology is a multifaceted and integrated process involving people, procedure, ideas, devices, and organization, where technology from different fields of science is borrowed as per the need and requirement of education for implementing, evaluating, and managing solutions to those problems involved in all aspects of human learning. Educational technology, broadly speaking, has passed through five stages. The first stage of educational technology is coupled with the use of aids like charts, maps, symbols, models, specimens and concrete materials. The term educational technology was used as synonyms to audio-visual aids. The second stage of educational technology is associated with the electronic revolution with the introduction and establishment of sophisticated hardware and software. Use of various audio-visual aids like projector, magic lanterns, tape-recorder, radio and television brought a revolutionary change in the educational scenario. Accordingly, educational technology concept was taken in terms of these sophisticated instruments and equipments for effective presentation of instructional materials. The third stage of educational technology is linked with the development of mass media which in turn led to communication revolution for instructional purposes. Computer-assisted Instruction (CAI) used for education since 1950s also became popular during this era. The fourth stage of educational technology is discernible by the individualized process of instruction. The invention of programmed learning and programmed instruction provided a new dimension to educational technology. A system of self-learning based on self-instructional materials and teaching machines emerged. The latest concept of educational technology is influenced by the concept of system engineering or system approach which focuses on language laboratories, teaching machines, programmed instruction, multimedia technologies and the use of the computer in instruction. According to it, educational technology is a systematic way of designing, carrying out and evaluating the total process of teaching and learning in terms of specific objectives based on research. Educational technology during the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age Educational technology, despite the uncertainty of the origin of the term, can be traced back to the time of the three-age system periodization of human prehistory; namely the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age. Duringthe Stone Age, ignition of fire by rubbing stones, manufacture of various handmade weapon and utensils from stones and clothing practice were some of the simple technological developments of utmost importance. A fraction of Stone Age people developed ocean-worthy outrigger canoe ship technology to migrate from one place to another across the Ocean, by which they developed their first informal education of knowledge of the ocean currents, weather conditions, sailing practice, astronavigation, and star maps. During the later Stone Age period (Neolithic period),for agricultural practice, polished stone tools were made from a variety of hard rocks largely by digging underground tunnels, w hich can be considered as the first steps in mining technology. The polished axes were so effective that even after appearance of bronze and iron; people used it for clearing forest and the establishment of crop farming. Although Stone Age cultures left no written records, but archaeological evidences proved their shift from nomadic life to agricultural settlement. Ancient tools conserved in different museums, cave paintings like Altamira Cave in Spain, and other prehistoric art, such as the Venus of Willendorf, Mother Goddess from Laussel, France etc. are some of the evidences in favour of their cultures. Neolithic Revolution of Stone Age resulted into the appearance of Bronze Age with development of agriculture, animal domestication, and the adoption of permanent settlements. For these practices Bronze Age people further developed metal smelting, with copper and later bronze, an alloy of tin and copper, being the materials of their choice. The Iron Age people replaced bronze and developed the knowledge of iron smelting technology to lower the cost of living since iron utensils were stronger and cheaper than bronze equivalents. In many Eurasian cultures, the Iron Age was the last period before the development of written scripts. Educational technology during the period of Ancient civilizations According to Paul Saettler, 2004, Educational technology can be traced back to the time when tribal priests systematized bodies of knowledge and ancient cultures invented pictographs or sign writing to record and transmit information. In every stage of human civilization, one can find an instructional technique or set of procedures intended to implement a particular culture which were also supported by number of investigations and evidences. The more advanced the culture, the more complex became the technology of instruction designed to reflect particular ways of individual and social behaviour intended to run an educated society. Over centuries, each significant shift in educational values, goals or objectives led to diverse technologies of instruction. The greatest advances in technology and engineering came with the rise of the ancient civilizations. These advances stimulated and educated other societies in the world to adopt new ways of living and governance. The Indus Valley Civilization was an early Bronze Age civilization which was located in the northwestern region of the Indian Subcontinent. The civilization was primarily flourished around the Indus River basin of the Indus and the Punjab region, extending upto the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley and the Ganges-Yamuna Doab, (most of the part is under todays Pakistan and the western states of modern-day India as well as some part of the civilization extending upto southeastern Afghanistan, and the easternmost part of Balochistan, Iran). There is a long term controversy to be sure about the language that the Harappan people spoke. It is assumed that their writing was at least seems to be or a pictographic script. The script appears to have had about 400 basic signs, with lots of variations. People write their script with the direction generally from right to left. Most of the writing was found on seals and sealings which were probably used in trade and official administrative work. Harappan people had the knowledge of the measuring tools of length, mass, and time. They were the first in the world to develop a system of uniform weights and measures. In a study carried out by P. N. Rao et al. in 2009, published in Science, computer scientists found that the Indus scripts pattern is closer to that of spoken words, which supported the proposed hypothesis that it codes for an as-yet-unknown language. According to the Chinese Civilization, some of the major techno-offerings from China include paper, early seismological detectors, toilet paper, matches, iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the suspension bridge, the wheelbarrow, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the magnetic compass, the raised-relief map, the blast furnace, the propeller, the crossbow, the South Pointing Chariot, and gun powder. With the invent of paper they have given their first step towards developments of educational technology by further culturing different handmade products of paper as means of visual aids. Ancient Egyptian language was at one point one of the longest surviving and used languages in the world. Their script was made up of pictures of the real things like birds, animals, different tools, etc. These pictures are popularly called hieroglyph. Their language was made up of above 500 hieroglyphs which are known as hieroglyphics. On the stone monuments or tombs which were discovered and rescued latter on provides the evidence of existence of many forms of artistic hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt. Educational technology during Medieval and Modern Period Paper and the pulp papermaking process which was developed in China during the early 2nd century AD, was carried to the Middle East and was spread to Mediterranean by the Muslim conquests. Evidences support that a paper mill was also established in Sicily in the 12th century. The discovery of spinning wheel increased the productivity of thread making process to a great extent and when Lynn White added the spinning wheel with increasing supply of rags, this led to the production of cheap paper, which was a prime factor in the development of printing technology. The invention of the printing press was taken place in approximately 1450 AD, by Johannes Gutenburg, a German inventor. The invention of printing press was a prime developmental factor in the history of educational technology to convey the instruction as per the need of the complex and advanced-technology cultured society. In the pre-industrial phases, while industry was simply the handwork at artisan level, the instructional processes were relied heavily upon simple things like the slate, the horn book, the blackboard, and chalk. It was limited to a single text book with a few illustrations. Educational technology was considered synonymous to simple aids like charts and pictures. The year 1873 may be considered a landmark in the early history of technology of education or audio-visual education. An exhibition was held in Vienna at international level in which an American school won the admiration of the educators for the exhibition of maps, charts, textbooks and other equipments. Maria Montessori (1870-1952), internationally renowned child educator and the originator of Montessori Method exerted a dynamic impact on educational technology through her development of graded materials designed to provide for the proper sequencing of subject matter for each individual learner. Modern educational technology suggests many extension of Montessoris idea of prepared child centered environment. In1833, Charles Babbages design of a general purpose computing device laid the foundation of the modern computer and in 1943, the first computing machine as per hi design was constructed by International Business Machines Corporation in USA. The Computer Assisted instruction (CAI) in which the computer functions essentially as a tutor as well as the Talking Type writer was developed by O.K. Moore in 1966. Since 1974, computers are interestingly used in education in schools, colleges and universities. In the beginning of the 19th century, there were noteworthy changes in the field of education. British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), right from its start of school broadcasts in 1920 had maintained rapid pace in making sound contribution to formal education. In the USA, by 1952, 20 states had the provision for educational broadcasting. Parallel to this time about 98% of the schools in United Kingdom were equipped with radios and there were regular daily programmes. Sidney L. Pressey, a psychologist of Ohio state university developed a self-teaching machine called Drum Tutor in 1920. Professor Skinner, however, in his famous article Science of Learning and art of Teaching published in 1945 pleaded for the application of the knowledge derived from behavioral psychology to classroom procedures and suggested automated teaching devices as means of doing so. Although the first practical use of Regular television broadcasts was in Germany in 1929 and in 1936 the Olympic Games in Berlin were broadcasted through television stations in Berlin, Open circuit television began to be used primarily for broadcasting programmes for entertainment in 1950. Since 1960, television is used for educational purposes. In 1950, Brynmor, in England, used educational technological steps for the first time. It is to be cared that in 1960, as a result of industrial revolution in America and Russia, other countries also started progressing in the filed of educational technology. In this way, the beginning of educational technology took place in 1960 from America and Russia and now it has reached England, Europe and India. During the time of around 1950s, new technocracy was turning it attraction to educations when there was a steep shortage of teachers in America and therefore an urgent need of educational technology was felt. Dr. Alvin C. Eurich and a little later his associate, Dr. Alexander J. Stoddard introduced mass production technology in America. Team teaching had its origin in America in the mid of 1950s and was first started in the year 1955 at Harvard University as a part of internship plan. In the year 1956, Benjamin Bloom from USA introduced the taxonomy of educational objectives through his publication, The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, The Classification of Educational Goals, Handbook I: Cognitive Domain.

Economic Factors Leading To Increased Crime Rate Economics Essay

Economic Factors Leading To Increased Crime Rate Economics Essay 1-Introduction Economic prosperity serves as a backbone for the overall progress of a nation. One thing is common in all developed nations- they are economically sound. When citizens of a country are freed from the worries of earning a livelihood to sustain their lives, they divert their attention to more useful things. They focus on education, improvise healthcare, develop technologies that make life easy and much more. Poor economic condition is the root cause of so many problems that exist in a society. The Beckers paper opened the door to a new field of empirical research whose main purpose was to verify and study the socioeconomic variables that affect crime. The economics of crime interacts with different and heterogeneous fields, i.e. (Sociology, Criminology, Psychology, Geography and Demography) and it is closely related to poverty, social exclusion, wage and income inequality, cultural and family background, level of education and other economic and socio-demographic factors that may affect an individuals propensity to commit crime such as age, gender and urbanization.  [1]   Crime is an activity which is against the law and the fact that the linkage between criminal activities and the socio-economic development of the society is undeniable. Crimes are associated with economic downturns and it is believed that crimes generally tend to rise during recessions and when economy is not performing well. As we know unemployment increases dramatically during bad economy which can lead to more cases of depression and increased number of crimes. The most obvious cases are drugs and alcohol. People suffering from depression often turn to drugs for refuge. Increase in drug taking leads to more drug related crimes. Drug dealing will become higher if demand is higher and when people do not have much to buy the drugs they will commit theft for money. It is also more likely that people will commit crimes, such as those involving violence, if they are intoxicated by drugs or alcohol. On the other side economic development are also dependent upon reduction in crimes. Keepi ng crime rates low now is the best guarantee that cities across the country will be able to exploit the inevitable economic recovery when it comes.  [2]   A recession leads to more debt. If people spiral into debt they are liable to become more desperate. This particularly increases crimes such as theft. People are more likely to steal so they can pay off their debts. They may also turn to other illegal ways to make money if they feel that there are no legitimate ways of earning. Violence is another area that can increase during a recession. People are more liable to get angry when times are tough, and therefore are more likely to turn violent. People may be angry with their employer who has made them redundant, or the government because they dont feel that they are being helped sufficiently, meaning they are generally more disgruntled with the world. People may also become more hostile towards each other. In particular those who are struggling may be angry towards those who are not. There has been a recent example of this in Ireland, where there were instances of violence towards some Romanian immigrants. The reason for this was attributed to some being angry that the immigrants had taken their jobs, although they were jobs local people hadnt applied for at the time of the vacancies.Family break ups are sometimes more likely to occur during a recession. Debt can cause stress within the family and lead to marriages breaking up. The breakup of parents can have an effect on children. They also show these children are 70% more likely to finish school without any qualifications. This is significant as a high percentage of crime is shown to be committed by those with a poor education.  [3]   There has not been undertaken a systematic comprehensive study for Pakistan on the above mentioned issue. Several explanations have been provided on crime in the literature but none of these provide a sound analysis of linkage between urbanization and crime. Therefore, there is dire need to fill this gap in the literature by conducting an empirical investigation on the relationship between crime and urbanization. This provides the motivation for the underlying study. More specifically, the objective of this study is to find the relationship between crimes and urbanization and some other macroeconomic factors such as unemployment, and inflation. The question is what will be the impact on crimes when large numbers of people settle down in a single city? Using time series data for Pakistan the study covers the period of 2007-2011. The results indicate that there is a positive association between urbanization and crime in Pakistan. Moreover, unemployment, inflation, and income inequality are also important determinants of crimes. Education, on the other hand, is found to have a negative effect on criminal activities. Rest of the study proceeds as follows; Section II briefly reviews the related literature on crimes and their determinants. Section III discusses the theoretical model and the econometric methodology used in the study. Detail of variables, results and interpretations are presented in Section IV. Section V concludes the study. 3-Economy of Pakistan. Economic prosperity serves as a backbone for the overall progress of a nation. One thing is common in all developed nations- they are economically sound. When citizens of a country are freed from the worries of earning a livelihood to sustain their lives, they divert their attention to more useful things. They focus on education, improvise healthcare, develop technologies that make life easy and much more. Poor economic condition is the root cause of so many problems that exist in a society. 3.1- GDP Growth. In the context of Pakistan, owing to the fact that it is a developing nation, there is no wonder that it is surrounding with a number of social and economical problems. The real issue is not the presence of these problems in society because, as stated earlier, there is no concept of an ideal society in the world. Every country in the world has its own set of socio-economic problems. The main issue is the extent and intensity of the socio-economic problems of Pakistan which have soared to alarming levels. Today, Pakistans economy remains somewhat backwards. The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in Pakistan expanded 2.39 percent in the second quarter of 2011 over the previous quarter.  [4]   3.2 Inflation The inflation rate in Pakistan was last reported at 10.2 percent in November of 2011. From 2003 until 2010, the average inflation rate in Pakistan was 10.15 percent reaching an historical high of 25.33  [5]  percent in August of 2008 and a record low of 1.41 percent in July of 2003. Inflation rate refers to a general rise in prices measured against a standard level of purchasing power. The most well known measures of Inflation are the CPI which measures consumer prices, and the GDP deflator, which measures inflation in the whole of the domestic economy. 4 Crimes in Pakistan Crime Statistics of Pakistan shows that there is a rapid increase in the number of crime reported over time like other countries of the world. It may be because of high unemployment, rising poverty, increasing inflation and urbanization.  [6]  .Despite the efforts and measures taken by the government and tall claims of law enforcement agencies for busting gangs, the crime rate in the country is increasing day by day and the crime rate is said to be touching 20.1 percent during the last one year in all over the country. the graph of vehicle theft and snatching, mobile phones snatching , fatal incidents and general crimes is on rise while police and other law enforcers are raising pleasant slogans and making non-stop claims for busting criminal gangs and rounding up individuals indulging in vehicle snatching and other crimes. If crime was a rational response to income inequality, the thinking went; government can best fight it through social services and wealth redistribution, not through arrests and incarceration.  [7]   According to data collected by online from National Police Bureau (NPB) shows that there are 59189 proclaimed offenders involved in major crimes while police has succeeded to arrest 70948 POs during year 2008 but still 59000 are operating. Amazingly, the numbers also increased from 58615 in 2008 to 59189 in 2009. According to the data, Punjab is still on top position with record number of 25991 proclaimed offenses while Sind is on second with 18373 offenders, NWFP 9514, Baluchistan 2659, Federal Capital 1777, Northern areas 446 and AJK have 429 proclaimed offenders.  [8]   4.1. Economic Factors leading to increased crime rate in Pakistan. 4.11 Poverty Lack of basic necessities is called Poverty. The people all over the world are facing serious problems of poverty. The results show that poverty also causes crime. The poor have limited income and resources to satisfy their desires and wants. In Pakistan the poverty statistics show dismal picture besides increasing income inequality. The low income means low saving potential which results in low standard of living. The low income in relation to increase prices (inflation) has crime instigating effect by reducing individuals moral threshold. Therefore, it can be concluded that people in poverty are induced to commit crime. The results of Granger causality through Toda-Yamamoto procedure affirm that poverty causes crime.  [9]   A great percentage of people in world are below the average line of poverty and such condition leads to begin cultural crime such as Suicide, Murder ETC. Almost 70% population of Pakistan live in villages. Most of them dont have access to sufficient basic needs of life. They are struggling for bread and butter. A large chunk of population lives below poverty line. They live in miserable conditions. Lack of proper food, clothing and shelter, poor sanitation, unsafe and sometimes dirty drinking water are just some of their many problems. Poverty itself gives rise to various other social problems. It deprives children of poor people to access education and healthcare. We read crime stories in newspapers that are characterized by lower orders of society who adopt illegal channels to get the financial prosperity which they cannot achieve otherwise. 4.12 Illiteracy. The illiteracy rate all over the world is increasing and the prime reason beside it is the high cost of education and lack of institutions and access. People due to lack of resources are unable to educate their childrens and so chain is developed with ever increasing illiteracy.In Pakistan Illiteracy is yet another problem. The literacy rate lingers on 56%. Over the decades, despite decreasing, illiteracy rate in Pakistan has shown an upward trend. Not only that but enrollment ratio of students at primary level has shown a decreasing trend. The facts that 50 percent of children do not complete their primary education testify this fact. Despite spending millions on it, government has failed to achieve literacy rates comparable to other countries in South Asia. 4.13- Corruption Corruption is the prime reason behind the economical unstableness. Corruption has spread into the world and has ruined the economy. Just as a weed spread in the field and affect the yield of the crop. Corruption is the mother of other problem such as unemployment which will be discussed later. According to latest report of Transparency International, Pakistans Corruption Perceptions Index declined to 2.3 in 2010 against 2.4 in 2009, and out of 178 countries, its ranking as most corrupt country jumped from 42 in 2009 to 34 in 2010.  [10]  Ã‚   Corruption in government departments is so much deep-rooted that a common concept prevails that the system doesnt let honest people to work peacefully. There is a lack of responsibility due to which wealthy people and those in power are sure that they cant be held responsible for their deeds. So they keep on looting the national treasures and find ways to legalize their black-money. Many corrupt people dont even bother to do that. 4.14- Unemployment Unemployment is a major social problem caused by poor economical system. Whole world is facing serious problems of unemployment and the reason behind it is the unstable economy. Lack of funds followed by unorganized system and lack of new projects are causing unemployment worldwide. Therefore the serving of deserving people is not used, causing loss to both country and the person. The results of the data analysis reveal that unemployment in Pakistan Granger causes crime. The reason is that unemployment rate in a country is a complementary indicator of income opportunities in the legal labour market. Therefore, when, unemployment rate increases the opportunities for earning income decreases which instigate the individuals to commit crime. The costs of committing crime go down for unemployed workers. The results of causality support this proposition that unemployment causes crime.  [11]   In Pakistan major portion of population consists of youth and a large number of young people who have the ability and are willing to work are unemployed. Currently rate of unemployment as per official resources is 7.4% but according to some private estimates the rate of unemployment is 12%.  [12]  There are many reasons of unemployment like influx of machinery that has replaced manpower, lack of new industries and defective education system. But the impacts of unemployment are more serious and dangerous. People who dont find work here migrate to other countries with better prospects. Also, people tired of making both ends meet due to unemployment indulge in evil activities and ratio of crimes increase. 4.15- Health Problem Health is another social problem caused by poor economical conditions. The cost of living is ever increasing and shortage of funds is a usual problem worldwide. There are less hospitals and medical centers and if there are any, the people are unable to afford their and their children health expenses so the health problems grow unchecked. 4.16- War on Terrorism War against terrorism is another very important reason behind the economical problem. War benefits none, someone is hurt badly and someone is destroyed completely. War is affecting the worlds economy and is causing problems like shortage of fuel, lack of funds, increase in health problem etc. When we talk about Pakistan, Due to war on terror, local people of war-ridden areas are migrating to other areas of Pakistan. Country has seen the largest migration since independence in 1947. These people have left their homes, businesses, possessions and property back home. This large influx of people and their rehabilitation is an economic burden for Pakistan. Unemployment is already common and now the question of providing employment to these migrants has also become a serious concern. This portion of population is contributing nothing worthwhile to the national income yet they have to be benefited from it. This unproductive lot of people is a growing economic problem of Pakistan. 4.17 Lack of tourism Lack of tourism is also a cause of the declining in economy. Northern areas of Pakistan have been a place of great tourist attraction. The beautiful hills, the lush green valleys, shimmering lakes and flowing waterfalls brought many a tourist from all over the world to Pakistan. This contributed to foreign exchange. Tourism Industry was one of the booming industries of Pakistan. Besides attracting foreign exchange, it also provided employment to local people. Also, tourist industry was a source of friendly relations with other countries. If the tourists are to come here in large numbers next year and feel comfortable, then streets should be cleared of the crimes now called street crimes. It is one thing to snatch mobile phones by the dozen everyday and quite another to relieve women of their jewelry. And there are bank robberies and snatching of money as the customers come out with that from banks. What is worse is resistance to such crimes which is fatal in too many cases.  [13]   Nevertheless, war on terrorism has served as a serious blow to the tourism industry of Pakistan. Local as well as foreign media has projected Pakistan as a dangerous and unsafe country. Its poor law and order situation has alarmed the tourist and thus Northern areas no more receive many tourists. 4.18 Loss in Business The poor economical system affects the business very badly. People all over the world are facing serious losses in business. In Pakistan sugar, cement and shoe industry is on its downfall while textile industry is breathing its last. Foreign investors are not ready to setup their businesses in Pakistan. They have their own set of problems which include painful and lengthy procedure of getting licenses and work permits in Pakistan, power crises, terrorism and declining exports. Multinational Companies are unwilling to open their offices and franchises in Pakistan. More than 70 Multinational Companies have already packed up their business from Pakistan. Now adding to the cost of doing business in Pakistan is the frequent wheel jam strikes.  [14]   5- Conclusion The first and the main conclusion is that there is positive association of depriving economic conditions with crimes in Pakistan. We conclude that bad economy is very important determinant of crimes in case of Pakistan. This robust analysis shows the very strong positive relation of urbanization with crimes in Pakistan. The other outcome is that in Pakistan inflation, unemployment and income inequality also the main determinants of crimes. Education also shows positive relation with crimes but this is not the right sign because we estimate model with urbanization, unemployment and with education then its sign become negative. It means that unemployment captures the sign of education so its right sign is negative. If there is more high education in Pakistan then this will reduce the crimes also. This study brings the important policy implications. In order to reduce the crime rate it is important that economic growth has to be favorable for poor class of the society. It should follow a path that directs resources to those sectors where majority of the poor exist like agriculture sector and the areas where they live (comparatively less developed areas).  [15]   The policy makers should make some planning to improve the economy and should provide more chance of employment and more capacity to absorb the rapid urbanization. After getting good education people dont have suitable job. Then those persons can adopt illegal ways to earn more money. But the special focus should be on infrastructure development because since 1964 urbanization increases. Second important implication is that government should create job opportunities in rural areas as well. This process will reduce the burden of unemployed persons in urban areas and finally reduce crimes. Moreover, the policy makers should try to keep inflation within acceptable limits so that the real income of consumers does not lose its purchasing power.

The Great Inflation :: American History Essays

The Great Inflation In late-1922 the German government were forced to ask the Allies for a moratorium on reparations payments; this was refused, and she then defaulted on shipments of both coal and timber to France. By January of the following year, French and Belgian troops had entered and occupied the Ruhr. The German people, perhaps for the first time since 1914, united behind their government, and passive resistance to the occupying troops was ordered. A government-funded strike began as thousands of workers marched out of their factories and steel works. The German economy, already under massive pressure, gave way. The huge cost of funding the strike in the Ruhr and the costs of imports to meet basic consumer needs were met by the familiar expedient of the printing presses. Note circulation increased rapidly, and by November 1923 had reached almost 92 trillion marks. With less than three per cent of government expenditure being met from income and with the cost of one dollar at four billion marks, Germany was in the throes of economic and social chaos. Starvation became a reality for millions of people, despite a bumper cereal harvest, as shops reverted to the barter system. Farmers refused to accept the effectively worthless, banknotes in exchange for grain, and food quickly began to run short in the cities. Prices rose one trillion-fold from their pre-war level. More importantly, for the long-term political future of Germany, the middle and working classes saw their savings wiped out. These were, in essence, the people who were later to become the hard-core of the Nazi vote. Economists will argue that runaway hyperinflation has two sources. Firstly, it arises through a fall in the foreign exchange value of a currency, when an adverse balance of payments reduces foreign investors demand for the currency. A falling exchange rate increases the cost of imports and, therefore, the cost of living. Wages rise as workers try to maintain their standard of living, especially if previous institutional arrangements have linked wages to living costs. Firms paying higher wages raise the price of the goods they sell, prices rise still further, the foreign exchange value of the currency falls still more, and the cycle continues. Secondly, it arises through a large budget deficit which no one believes will narrow in the future. Faced with the prospect of budget deficits for many years to come, the usual sources of credit available to the government decline to make further loans; the government can no longer borrow to cover the deficit between revenue and expenditure. The only alternative is to print more and more banknotes. As government workers and suppliers present their

An Analysis of Joyce Carol Oates’ Where Are You Going, Where Have You

An Analysis of Joyce Carol Oates’ Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been Joyce Carol Oates is one of the most productive writers of our time. Between 1971-95, Oates published twenty-five novels, eighteen short story compilations, three collections of novellas, five volumes of poetry, six editions of plays, eight books of essays, and countless more umcollected works (Kellman 487). As the format for her writing varies, so does her subject matter. Her creations cover a wide range of genres, but Oates' main fascination is contemporary America with its "colliding social and economic forces, its philosophical contradictions, its wayward, often violent energies" (Johnson 8). Oates' works, and somethimes even Oates herself, have been subject to responses ranging from extreme praise to harsh criticism from the literary community. Oates has won many significant literary awards and has even been nominated twice for the Nobel Prize in literature but has also received her share of bad press. Oates' work has time and time again been criticized for being too violent, to o bizarre, degrading to women, and "the exact antithesis to the feminist movement" (gtd. in Wesley par. 32). I believe the opposite is true. Oates herself has been quoted as saying that her subject matter is "today's culture," and that all she is trying to do is to bring the ills of our cuture "to a place where it can be examined" (Johnson 10). Some of her stories are purely fictional, but many stories seem to be ripped from the headlines. Zombie, a 1995 novel, is loosely based on the Jeffrey Dahmer serial killings (Seltzer 288). The highly acclaimed short story "Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been?" draws its inspiration from the case of an Arizona serial killer,... ...arterly Review 38 (1999): 487-495. Literature Online. 13 July 2002 . Oates, Joyce Carol. "Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been?" Selected Early Stories. Princeton, NJ: Ontario Review Press, 1993. Seltzer, Mark. Serial Killers: Death and Life in America's Wound Culture. New York, NY: Routledge, 1998. Smooth Talk. Dir. Joyce Chopra. Perf. Treat Williams, Laura Dern, Mary Kay Place, Elizabeth Berridge, and Levon Helm. Vestron Video, 1986. Southner, Randy. "Celestial Timepiece: A Joyce Carol Oates Homepage." 2002. University of San Francisco. 12 July 2002 . Wagner, Linda W. Critical Essays on Joyce Carol Oates. Boston, MA: G. K. Hall, 1979. Wesley, Marilyn C. "Reverence, Rape, Resistance: Joyce Carol Oates and Feminist Film Theory." Mosaic: A Journal for the Interdisciplinary Study of Literature 32.3 (1999): 75-85. Literature Online. 13 July 2002 .

Peer Pressure Essay

Peer pressure persuades one to do something that one does not want to do. But maybe you want to do it, and you just don’t have the courage to do it and your friends talk you into it. Peer Pressure can be good peer pressure or bad peer pressure. Bad peer pressure makes one do something that one does not want to do. One of the major problems with peer pressure is that one is forced into doing something one does not want to do. Usually, people get backed into a situation to try illegal drugs, alcohol, and cigarettes and these behaviors can become habit forming . If and when someone comes up and offers you one of these substances, it is your decision whether you want to try or continue to use these substances.. Good peer pressure, on the other hand, is being pushed into something that you didn’t have the courage to do or just didn’t cross your mind to do. It seems to me like a good thing to do. Good peer pressure can also be a situation when our friends convince us not to do something we were going to do because it wasn’t in our best interest. Some people say that good peer pressure is when you get pushed into something that you don’t want to do , but it turns out well. When we have to make these big decisions, it is important to think before deciding. We must think about whether we want to do it, think about whether you should, and finally think about the consequences. These are the important things we must do before taking any big decision. If the person advises us is not our friend, we must really consider what he wants us to do. When we think of peer pressure we always think of it in terms of â€Å"bad†. We think of peer pressure in terms of pressure to; smoke, do illicit drugs, drink alcohol, engage in criminal and quasi-criminal behaviour, do violence, join gangs, etc†¦ We rarely think of the many â€Å"good† ways that peer pressure can influence us – and neither do the parents of teens! In fact it is essential to proper social development that we do learn to â€Å"follow the crowd†. This is how we learn acceptable social norms; that is, how we are expected to act in the world in order to be good people. The difference between good peer pressure and bad peer pressure can be summed up in a simple comparison – when it is good, you are a member of the crowd; when it is bad, you are part of a mob. If peer pressure is telling you to do something without questioning why, to do something you know is wrong, or to do something you feel uncomfortable doing it is safe to say this is bad. This is the kind of behaviour that leads to a â€Å"mob mentality†, that is when the group is acting as one and no one seems to be thinking about consequences or outcome. If peer pressure is telling you to act in a generally appropriate way, to do the right thing when you may not otherwise, or to do more good than harm it is safe to say this is good. Peer pressure help you analyze yourself and contemplate on your ways of life. If you are fortunate to get a good peer group, your peers can play a vital role in the shaping of your personality. Their way of looking at life may influence you to change for betterment. Some of your peers are your close friends, who do not pressurize you to do things but rather inspire you to change yourself. Your peer group may actually persuade you to bring about a constructive change in your personality. Peer pressure can lead you to make the right choices in life. Thus peer pressure is more beneficial than harmful.